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 Four-term contingencies are important when studying the concept of behavior and the development of an individual. Operant conditioning is based on the idea that we can increase or decrease a certain behavior by adding a consequence. This includes positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment. Providing reinforcement to a situation can cause a behavior to increase and continue, but punishment will show that certain behaviors have consequences. Both reinforcement and punishment can have negative and positive outcomes. These contingencies can be shown a lot through parenting. For example, a more strict parent may enforce certain rules and expectations that a more laid-back parent may not. This will show either a higher or lower level of punishment and reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is when something is added to increase the likelihood of behavior, while negative reinforcement has an opposite effect and is caused when a stimulus is...

       Observational Learning is learning by watching, retaining information, and replicating behavior. There are four stages of observational learning: attention,  retention, reproduction, and motivation. For attention the observer has to be focused and engaged with the model. Retention is when the observer is able to remember what they viewed. Reproduction is when the learner is able to replicate what the model was doing. Motivation is necessary for the observer to learn through observing.      Albert Bandura is most associated with observational learning, he argues that we as humans are more naturally inclined to engage in observational learning. Bandura conducted a famous experiment called the "Bobo Doll Experiment". It showed that children may imitate aggressive behavior if that is how an adult is acting. The children watched a film where adults repeatedly hit balloon doll and then the children were able to play with the same doll after ...

               Schedule reinforcement is that an instance of behavior will be reinforced, but can be separated into two categories. There is first kind of scheduling is the continuous reinforcement schedule which is when each specified response is reinforced.   Scheduling helps teach a behavior but it will show how different it may be when different response requirements will have different effects on behavior. To have a continuous reinforcement schedule the behavior needs a reward like making a child make sure they finish their homework, you can reward them with candy or more screen time. While the second one is an intermittent or a partial reinforcement schedule which is the behavior is sometimes reinforced. Once the behavior has been established then that when partial reinforcement comes in and reward is then on occasion.  Source POWELL, R. U. S. S. E. L. L. A. (2020). Introduction To Learning And Behavio...

       Operant conditioning is a type of learning that includes rewards and punishments.  The goal of operant conditioning is to create an association between a behavior and a consequence whether is it negative or positive.  A common example of operant conditioning is when a lab rats press a lever when a green light is on and the rat receives a piece of food. Or the rat presses a lever when there is a red light on and they receive a shock. The lab rats learn to only press the lever when the light is green.      There are many components to operant conditioning; positive reinforcers, negative reinforcers, positive punishment, and negative punishment.  Positive reinforcers are favorable events that are presented after the behavior. For example, a student gets an "A" on a test and the teacher gives them a gold star. The gold star is the positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unfavorable event after the behavior....

     Classical conditioning is also involved in the development of fear and anxieties since the fear response is elicited by a previously neutral stimulus and becomes associated with an aversive stimulus. This is important in helping us avoid dangerous situations, but not all phobias are developed through classical conditioning and many often can’t recall when their phobia developed. We may develop phobias which is when we feel more intense or extreme fear and anxiety towards something. This can become a disorder if the fear and anxiety extends to other harmless events and the amount of anxiety and fear is out of proportion. These phobias may be treated with counter-conditioning, reciprocal inhibition, systematic desensitization, or flooding.       There are many different types of phobias that exist and some are very unique while others are fairly common. I wanted to learn more about phobias and learn about the most common phobias. I found a video tha...

      In the past, the terms "self-control" and "willpower" were often used together to describe a person. If someone lacked self-control meant they just did not have enough willpower. If someone was well-behaved and wise, they had a lot of willpower.  However, according to Skinner self-control and willpower were not one and the same.      Skinner believed self-control was an issue of conflicting outcomes and managing conflicts like these has two types of responses: controlling response and controlled response, by doing one it affects the other. Types of controlling responses are physical restraint, depriving and satiating, doing something else, and self-reinforcement and self-punishment. Physical restraint is when you physically manipulate the environment to prevent problematic behavior from happening. Depriving and satiating are used as a tactic to stop a behavior. For example, you eat a meal before grocery shopping so you are not hungry while shoppi...

     Elicited behaviors are behaviors that are involuntarily drawn out by a stimulus. These are automatic responses and one example of this is reflexes. Reflexes are a simple automatic response that can involve a gland or set of muscles or involved the coordinated action of several body parts. Another example is the flexion response which is when we automatically pull our hand away from a hot or sharp object and this is usually accompanied by a startle response. The startle response is a defensive reaction to a stimulus and involves tightening of muscles, hormone and internal organ changes. A few things can produce the startling response. Horror movies as well as horror games are known for their ability to produce this response.       Horror movies can produce the startle response from the audience through the sounds and images. For example, the acoustic blast is a common sound device used in horror films and it is specifically used to elicit a startle...